Considerable debate exists in the self-perception literature over the impact of positively biased self-perceptions on social and psychological functioning. Positively based self-perceptions are those in which an individual has a more positive opinion of himself than objective indicators warrant. One view suggests that positive perceptual biases are characteristic of normal human thought across a variety of domains and correlate positively with good mental and psychological health. Certain researchers and clinicians have even proposed that by boosting self-concepts, symptoms of depression and levels of aggression may be reduced.Investigators on the other side of the debate maintain that when most positive self-perceptions are compared to an objective criterion, they appear neither positively biased nor adaptive. In fact, Baumeister, Smart, and Boden suggest that positively biased self-concepts may have a ‘dark side’. They proposed that it is persons with very positive self-views who are prone to be aggressive. As a result, building up individuals' self-perceptions may serve only to increase levels of aggression rather than curb them.According to Baumeister et al., not all individuals with positive self-perceptions are going to be interpersonally aggressive. Rather, individuals who are extremely positive in their perceptions of themselves and their functioning are proposed to be the most likely to become angry and potentially violent. The mechanism that triggers aggressive behavior by these individuals has been suggested to be negative social feedback that challenges their positive self-views. Such threats to positive self-esteem give rise to anger and hostility.If negative social information is encountered that challenges established positive self-perceptions, Baumeister et al. propose that individuals must choose to either accept the feedback and lower their self-perceptions or reject the feedback to maintain their positive self-views. The chosen reaction then influences their subsequent affective states and behavioral expressions. By accepting the external appraisals and adjusting self-perceptions downward, dysphoric feelings and social withdrawal may result. Conversely, the rejection of the validity of the unfavorable feedback results in feelings of anger and resentment toward the source of the threat. Dodge and colleagues demonstrated that children who interpret social cues as threatening direct their anger and aggression at the peers who gave the negative evaluations. Anger stemming from the receipt of social criticism is a way to deny the legitimacy of the negative information. By directing hostile reactions toward the source of the negative feedback, the influx of disconfirming information may end. Unless individuals react against the self-esteem threat, they may be compelled to revise their self-concepts negatively, in line with the information provided. By discounting the negative social feedback, individuals can protect themselves from dysphoric feelings and maintain their positively biased self-perceptions, but they may be setting themselves up to become interpersonally aggressive.Although positively biased self-perceptions may place individuals at risk for negative social feedback and subsequent increases in aggressive behavior, not all positive self-concepts are suggested to be harmful. The relationship between positive self-perceptions and aggression may depend on the degree of perceptual distortion (i.e., moderate vs. extreme distortion). Baumeister (1989) and Baumeister et al. (1996) proposed that an optimal range of moderate bias might exist within which mental health is encouraged. Maladjustment in psychological and social functioning is suggested to occur when the degree of bias of self-perceptions shifts from moderate to extreme levels. Extremely negative and positive perceptual bias would be related to different but equally harmful difficulties.The passage discusses the likelihood of violence stemming from which of the following types of individuals?
Answer(s): B
According to the passage, when negative social information is encountered by a person with a highly elevated level of self-perception, it may lead to violence.
Unemployment in Winston County has risen only 4% since I took office. Under my predecessor, unemployment rose 14%. Clearly, my economic policies are far more effective.Which of the following must be true in order for this argument to be valid?
Answer(s): C
In order for the two administrations to be compared, the socioeconomic variables must be comparable. If Winston County’s economy had relied largely upon a factory that closed down during the previous administration, then the unemployment rate would necessarily rise considerably following that event. The state of the national, state, and local economies and the demographic makeup of Winston County (e.g., no significant increase or decrease in population) need to be nearly identical for the speaker to make a fair comparison and claim that his or her policies are more effective. If Winston County’s population dropped significantly (choice a), it could explain why the unemployment rate dropped as well—but it does not support the speaker’s claim that his or her policies “ are far more effective.” Choice b, which reflects the state of the national economy, also offers an explanation for the change in unemployment rates in Winston County, again contradicting the speaker’s claim that his or her economic policies made the difference. If the speaker had implemented key policy changes (choice d) or tax incentives (choice e), they could have significantly reduced unemployment. However, the unemployment rates still cannot be compared unless other variables are comparable.
Morning Glory, the coffee shop on the corner, has lost nearly 50% of its business because a national retail coffee chain opened up a store down the street. Instead of closing up shop, the owner of MorningGlory plans to draw in customers by offering coffee, tea, and pastries at much lower prices than the national coffee chain.The owner’s plan of action is based on all of the following assumptions EXCEPT
Answer(s): D
The owner’s plan — to lower prices to attract customers — assumes that some customers will choose the lower price (choice a), that the quality of Morning Glory’s products is comparable to its competitor (choice b), that Morning Glory can afford to offer lower prices (choice c), and that its competitor will also not lower its prices (choice e). The plan does not rest on any assumptions about the loyalty of Morning Glory customers (choice d). Indeed, there is evidence that the customers are not loyal, because Morning Glory has already lost 50% of its business.
When romance novels were located in the back of the bookstore, they accounted for approximately 6% of total sales. Since we moved romance novels close to the front of the store and put several books on display, sales of romance novels have increased to 14% to 18% of total sales.All of the following conclusions can logically be drawn from this argument EXCEPT
Answer(s): A
The significant increase in sales after the relocation of the books indicates that customers are more likely to buy books at the front of the store (choice b) and that the display may have caught the interest of people who might not otherwise purchase a romance novel (choice c). It is also logical to conclude that sales would further increase if the books were moved even farther toward the front of the store (choice e). Choices b and e and the increase in sales all suggest that customers believe the best books are near the front of the store (choice d).The only conclusion that cannot logically be drawn from this scenario is that customers will come back to purchase more romance novels (choice a). The data does not indicate repeat purchases for customers.
With more and more classes being offered online, more and more students will earn their degrees in virtual universities. Students in California will graduate from schools in New York without ever leaving their state. Because online courses offer flexibility without geographic boundaries, virtual degrees will be in greater demand, and colleges and universities should invest the bulk of their resources in developing online degree programs.All of the following, if true, are valid objections to this argument EXCEPT
All of the choices except b offer reasons why online degree programs are problematic, suggesting that resources should not be focused on developing online degree programs. Choice b offers support for the argument by stating that the flexibility of online classes will attract students who would not normally be able to attend regular classes.
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