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How the Other Half Lives

(1) Long ago it was said that "one half of the world does not know how the other half lives." That was true then. It did not know because it did not care. The half that was on top cared little for the struggles, and less for the fate of those who were underneath, so long as it was able to hold them there and keep its own seat. There came a time when the discomfort and crowding below were so great, and the consequent upheavals so violent, that it was no longer an easy thing to do, and then the upper half fell to wondering what the matter was. Information on the subject has been accumulating rapidly since, and the whole world has had its hands full answering for its old ignorance.

(2) In New York, the youngest of the world's great cities, that time came later than elsewhere, because the crowding had not been so great. There were those who believed that it would never come; but their hopes were vain. Greed and reckless selfishness delivered similar results here as in the cities of older lands. "When the great riot occurred in 1863," reads the testimony of the Secretary of the Prison Association of New York before a legislative committee appointed to investigate causes of the increase of crime in the State twenty-five years ago, "every hiding-place and nursery of crime discovered itself by immediate and active participation in the operations of the mob. Those very places and domiciles, and all that are like them, are today nurseries of crime, and of the vices and disorderly courses which lead to crime. By far the largest part ­ 80% at least ­ of crimes against property and people are perpetrated by individuals who have either lost connection with home life, or never had any, or whose homes had ceased to afford what are regarded as ordinary wholesome influences of home and family... The younger criminals seem to come almost exclusively from the worst tenement house districts, that is, when traced back to the very laces where they had their homes in the city here." One thing New York was made of sure at that early stage of the inquiry: the boundary line of the Other Half lies through the tenements.

(3) It is ten years and over, now, since that line divided New York's population evenly. Today three-fourths of New Yorkers live in the tenements, and the nineteenth century drift of the population to the cities is only increasing those numbers. The fifteen thousand tenant houses in the past generation have swelled into thirty- seven thousand, and more than twelve hundred thousand persons call them home. The one way out ­ rapid transit to the suburbs ­ has brought no relief. We know now that there is no way out; that the "system" that was the evil offspring of public neglect and private greed is here to stay, forever a center of our civilization. Nothing is left but to make the best of a bad bargain.

(4) The story is dark enough, drawn from the plain public records, to send a chill to any heart. If it shall appear that the sufferings and the sins of the "other half," and the evil they breed, are but as a fitting punishment upon the community that gave it no other choice, it will be because that is the truth. The boundary line lies there because, while the forces for good on one side vastly outweigh the bad ­ not otherwise ­ in the tenements all the influences make for evil; because they are the hotbeds of the epidemics that carry death to rich and poor alike; the nurseries of poverty and crime that fill our jails and courts; that throw off forty thousand human wrecks to the island asylums and workhouses year by year; that turned out in the last eight years a round half million beggars to prey upon our charities; that maintain a standing army of ten thousand panhandlers with all that that implies; because, above all, they touch the family life with deadly moral poison. This is their worst crime, inseparable from the system. That we have to own it, the child of our own wrong, does not excuse it, even though it gives it claim upon our utmost patience and tenderest charity.

According to the last paragraph, the following statements about tenements are true:

I). They foster illegal activity.
II). They spread disease to the rich.
III). Rich and poor alike may find themselves living there.

How the Other Half Lives

(1) Long ago it was said that "one half of the world does not know how the other half lives." That was true then. It did not know because it did not care. The half that was on top cared little for the struggles, and less for the fate of those who were underneath, so long as it was able to hold them there and keep its own seat. There came a time when the discomfort and crowding below were so great, and the consequent upheavals so violent, that it was no longer an easy thing to do, and then the upper half fell to wondering what the matter was. Information on the subject has been accumulating rapidly since, and the whole world has had its hands full answering for its old ignorance.

(2) In New York, the youngest of the world's great cities, that time came later than elsewhere, because the crowding had not been so great. There were those who believed that it would never come; but their hopes were vain. Greed and reckless selfishness delivered similar results here as in the cities of older lands. "When the great riot occurred in 1863," reads the testimony of the Secretary of the Prison Association of New York before a legislative committee appointed to investigate causes of the increase of crime in the State twenty-five years ago, "every hiding-place and nursery of crime discovered itself by immediate and active participation in the operations of the mob. Those very places and domiciles, and all that are like them, are today nurseries of crime, and of the vices and disorderly courses which lead to crime. By far the largest part ­ 80% at least ­ of crimes against property and people are perpetrated by individuals who have either lost connection with home life, or never had any, or whose homes had ceased to afford what are regarded as ordinary wholesome influences of home and family... The younger criminals seem to come almost exclusively from the worst tenement house districts, that is, when traced back to the very laces where they had their homes in the city here." One thing New York was made of sure at that early stage of the inquiry: the boundary line of the Other Half lies through the tenements.

(3) It is ten years and over, now, since that line divided New York's population evenly. Today three-fourths of New Yorkers live in the tenements, and the nineteenth century drift of the population to the cities is only increasing those numbers. The fifteen thousand tenant houses in the past generation have swelled into thirty- seven thousand, and more than twelve hundred thousand persons call them home. The one way out ­ rapid transit to the suburbs ­ has brought no relief. We know now that there is no way out; that the "system" that was the evil offspring of public neglect and private greed is here to stay, forever a center of our civilization. Nothing is left but to make the best of a bad bargain.

(4) The story is dark enough, drawn from the plain public records, to send a chill to any heart. If it shall appear that the sufferings and the sins of the "other half," and the evil they breed, are but as a fitting punishment upon the community that gave it no other choice, it will be because that is the truth. The boundary line lies there because, while the forces for good on one side vastly outweigh the bad ­ not otherwise ­ in the tenements all the influences make for evil; because they are the hotbeds of the epidemics that carry death to rich and poor alike; the nurseries of poverty and crime that fill our jails and courts; that throw off forty thousand human wrecks to the island asylums and workhouses year by year; that turned out in the last eight years a round half million beggars to prey upon our charities; that maintain a standing army of ten thousand panhandlers with all that that implies; because, above all, they touch the family life with deadly moral poison. This is their worst crime, inseparable from the system. That we have to own it, the child of our own wrong, does not excuse it, even though it gives it claim upon our utmost patience and tenderest charity.

According to the author, crime committed by the poor:

How the Other Half Lives

(1) Long ago it was said that "one half of the world does not know how the other half lives." That was true then. It did not know because it did not care. The half that was on top cared little for the struggles, and less for the fate of those who were underneath, so long as it was able to hold them there and keep its own seat. There came a time when the discomfort and crowding below were so great, and the consequent upheavals so violent, that it was no longer an easy thing to do, and then the upper half fell to wondering what the matter was. Information on the subject has been accumulating rapidly since, and the whole world has had its hands full answering for its old ignorance.

(2) In New York, the youngest of the world's great cities, that time came later than elsewhere, because the crowding had not been so great. There were those who believed that it would never come; but their hopes were vain. Greed and reckless selfishness delivered similar results here as in the cities of older lands. "When the great riot occurred in 1863," reads the testimony of the Secretary of the Prison Association of New York before a legislative committee appointed to investigate causes of the increase of crime in the State twenty-five years ago, "every hiding-place and nursery of crime discovered itself by immediate and active participation in the operations of the mob. Those very places and domiciles, and all that are like them, are today nurseries of crime, and of the vices and disorderly courses which lead to crime. By far the largest part ­ 80% at least ­ of crimes against property and people are perpetrated by individuals who have either lost connection with home life, or never had any, or whose homes had ceased to afford what are regarded as ordinary wholesome influences of home and family... The younger criminals seem to come almost exclusively from the worst tenement house districts, that is, when traced back to the very laces where they had their homes in the city here." One thing New York was made of sure at that early stage of the inquiry: the boundary line of the Other Half lies through the tenements.

(3) It is ten years and over, now, since that line divided New York's population evenly. Today three-fourths of New Yorkers live in the tenements, and the nineteenth century drift of the population to the cities is only increasing those numbers. The fifteen thousand tenant houses in the past generation have swelled into thirty- seven thousand, and more than twelve hundred thousand persons call them home. The one way out ­ rapid transit to the suburbs ­ has brought no relief. We know now that there is no way out; that the "system" that was the evil offspring of public neglect and private greed is here to stay, forever a center of our civilization. Nothing is left but to make the best of a bad bargain.

(4) The story is dark enough, drawn from the plain public records, to send a chill to any heart. If it shall appear that the sufferings and the sins of the "other half," and the evil they breed, are but as a fitting punishment upon the community that gave it no other choice, it will be because that is the truth. The boundary line lies there because, while the forces for good on one side vastly outweigh the bad ­ not otherwise ­ in the tenements all the influences make for evil; because they are the hotbeds of the epidemics that carry death to rich and poor alike; the nurseries of poverty and crime that fill our jails and courts; that throw off forty thousand human wrecks to the island asylums and workhouses year by year; that turned out in the last eight years a round half million beggars to prey upon our charities; that maintain a standing army of ten thousand panhandlers with all that that implies; because, above all, they touch the family life with deadly moral poison. This is their worst crime, inseparable from the system. That we have to own it, the child of our own wrong, does not excuse it, even though it gives it claim upon our utmost patience and tenderest charity.

It can be inferred from the passage that the author's opinion of the poor is:

(1) When I first heard the term "illuminated manuscript" and learned of its association with medieval monasteries, I pictured hand-lettered parchment texts actually lighted from within by a kind of benevolent, supernatural light. I soon discovered, however, that the adjective illuminated" in this case had nothing to do with light, nor did it always have to do with the Christian church or with medieval times. Rather, "to illuminate" simply meant "to adorn" the pages of a manuscript, usually with brilliant colors and sometimes even with precious metals or stones.

(2) Although illuminated manuscripts reached their apogee in the Middle Ages and are best known as a product of the medieval Christian church, they actually had their origins in Egypt, nearly four thousand years ago. The first known illuminated manuscript was the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which contained instructions for the ceremonies for burial of the dead and the prayers to be said by those left behind. Originally, those books were commissioned by royalty, nobility, and others of high rank, but eventually even ordinary people could purchase them. Among the scenes commonly contained in the Egyptian Book of the Dead were the funeral cortege and the mummification process, as well as depictions of the deceased in the afterlife. Thanks to the dry climate in Egypt, a number of these ancient manuscripts have survived.

(3) The practice of illuminating manuscripts flourished in Europe. The Vatican Library houses two manuscripts by Virgil, and a copy of the Iliad by Homer resides in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan. A few Bibles and religious storybooks have survived also. Hellenistic and Roman wall painting influenced the illustrations in these texts, and as the age progressed, the artwork came to be more influenced by classical art with biblical themes. By the seventh century, the most important illuminated manuscripts were the prayer books being produced in monasteries in England and Ireland. The illustrators were greatly influenced by Celtic metalwork from previous centuries, and the works are beautiful and impressive (though they may look slightly primitive to modern eyes as the artists have made no effort to give a sense of perspective).

(4) By the tenth and eleventh centuries, monasteries in England moved away from their Celtic influence and embraced the Carolingian style. The pictures in these manuscripts, drawn for royals and other wealthy patrons, became more interpretive, actually illustrating passages from the book, with stylized figures looking rather severely out at the reader. By the twelfth century, these English illuminators were integrating illustration and decoration into the text. Bibles made in England at this time contained entire scenes. Many of these manuscripts also presented mythical figures, like dragons or part-human, part-animal figures that did not relate directly to the text.

(5) By the Gothic period, the urbanization of Europe led to increasing numbers of illuminated manuscripts. The illustrations became more realistic: The figures wore the clothes of the day and were shown in contemporary settings. The artists also began to be concerned with balance and perspective. The handwritten books and scrolls were embellished with decorations and illustrations intended to enhance the text, and the paints used were made from natural materials such as minerals and stones. Red, brown, orange, and yellow were derived from ochers and metals; blue came from lapis lazulim azurite, or indigo. In Europe, artists also applied gold leaf.

(6) During the Middle Ages, the illumination of manuscripts was an important art form, and illuminations employed a variety of decorations and enhancements. Although most of the books began with an imaginary portrait of the book's author or its patron, in some the first page contained abstract designs that were reminiscent of the Oriental carpet, and thus, the first page later came to be known as the carpet page. Texts of this time usually had enlarged and embellished initial letters ­ sometimes shaped like animals, birds, or flowers. Some particularly important texts religious, literary, or historical ­ might have full-page illustrations, which would be placed either at the appropriate point in the text or grouped together at the beginning.

(7) During the Renaissance, patrons continued to order these hand-illuminated manuscripts even though the printing press (c. 1450) made mass production of manuscripts by machine possible. This was not true in the Middle East, however. Consequently, the illuminated manuscript kept its influential role and many exquisite examples survive to this day. Although the invention of the printing press could be said to mark the beginning of the end for illuminated manuscripts in Europe and elsewhere, they performed an invaluable service during their long history. Because of widespread illiteracy throughout history, pictures have always been an important source of information. Even people who could not read ­ whether in ancient Egypt or medieval Europe could glean information from the illustrated pages. Perhaps the image of a page lighted from within is not such a far- fetched description of the illuminated manuscript, after all.

The main idea of the passage is: